Candles

Used ceremonially, replacing the original oil wicks. Two are lit Friday on the eve of Sabbath, representing the two injunctions to "remember" and "observe" the Sabbath. A plaited taper is lit at the exit of Sabbath. Candles are lit at every festival. Lit candles are placed beside the dead. The Hanukah Menorah* is an eight-breached candlestick.

Canon:

The word "canon," meaning a measuring rod, hence measure or standard is applied to the collection of Hebrew Scriptures, or so-called Old Testament-the Jewish Bible. Canon refers then to the totality of books elevated to scriptural rank, and included in the Bible, and therefore authoritative and holy, as distinct from those other books of the Apocrypha, which were excluded from the canon, and thus are not scriptural or holy.

The canon is divided into three parts; (a) Torah__the Law (Pentateuch), or Five Books of Moses; (b) Nebiim-the Prophets; and (c) Kethubim__the Holy Writings or Hagiographa. From the initial letters of the names for the three divisions___T.N.K.__we get the word Tanakh, sometimes applied to the Hebrew scriptures. Frequently Jews use the term Torah to designate the entire Bible.

The Five Books of Moses are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. Within a framework of history__from Creation to Abraham, and the patriarchal period in Genesis, and the career of Moses in the other four books__the Torah proper, or Law, is enclosed. The Prophets are subdivided into two parts: Former and Latter Prophets. The first part, Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings, are rather historical books, tracing the history of the Jewish people from the death of Moses to the fall of the Kingdom of Judah. The second part consists of the Prophetic books proper, including Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, or Major Prophets, and the Twelve Minor Prophets, counted as one book. The Holy Writings consists of a number of books hard to classify. Therein we have the Book of Psalms, Proverbs and Job, the Five Scrolls (Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Esther), the Book of Daniel, and books of a historical character like Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles. In Hebrew the entire Bible is sometimes referred to as the Twenty-Four (Esrim ve-Arba), because the two books of Samuel, the two books of Kings, the books of Chronicles, and Ezra, Nehemiah were counted as single books; so also the Twelve Minor Prophets figured as one book. In that way the 39 books were compressed into 24.

The order of the books in the Hebrew canon was fixed by 100 c.e., but it was not always so. In the Church translations of the Hebrew Bible some books are placed differently, as for instance, Ruth after Judges, and Lamentations after Jeremiah, instead of in the third division of the Hebrew canon. The Torah was first to be canonized, to b e followed by the Prophets, and lastly, by the Holy Writings. Certain books were admitted into the canon not without a division of opinion among the religious authorities of the time. Thus, for instance, there was a doubt as to whether Ezekiel and the Book of Ecclesiastes should be included.

Although the Torah * was placed on a higher rank and invested with a relatively higher sanctity or authoritativeness than that of the Prophets and Holy Writings, yet all the books of the canon are properly designated as Holy Scriptures, for in all of them we have the manifestation of the Spirit. The entire collection assumed a unity and became the Bible, as the depository of the sum of Divine Revelation.

David Rosenbaum, Ph. D., M.A.
Rabbi, Temple Judea, Chicago, Ill.

Cantonists:

Name applied in Russia to the Jewish boys who at the age of 12, under a law of Nicholas I., were in 1827 drafted for military service, and placed in cantonal or district schools, in the hope that by educating them in environment estranged from parental influence, the conversion of the boys could be accomplished. Public opinion was outraged by the cruelties practiced in these cantonal schools, and the system was abolished by Alexander II. in 1857.

Census:

Though a census is referred to (Num. i.) there was opposition to it in the reign of David, and the superstition averse to enumeration is still manifest in the counting of males in a minyan (religious quorum). The objection may have arisen because the census was used either for taxation or military purposes. The enumeration of a population for scientific and statistical reasons is a modern custom. In 6-7 a Roman census was the occasion of an uprising in Palestine. A census by counting the number of lambs slaughtered for the Passover is the most elaborate enumeration of the inhabitants of Jerusalem mentioned by Josephus, but his many detailed figures of population suggest that the Romans counted the inhabitants of Palestine periodically. The exact enumeration of Jews throughout the world is impossible because all governments do not demand a tabulation by creed. Since 1922 the population of Palestine has been twice numbered without religious objections being raised. But at the second census, 1932, some Jews withheld themselves for political reasons. Dr. H. S. Linfield in 1927 estimated the Jewish population of the world at 14,000,000.

Ceremonies:

Rites consecrated by religious or national tradition. With the Jews the largest proportion of all ceremonies are Minhagim* or customs, and they are dealt with under that title, the individual customs being detailed under their proper names. The Bible mentions certain ceremonies to be observed as "memorials," symbolic expressions of incidents in Jewish history or experience. The whole of the service in the Tabernacle* and later in the Temple* was a ritual, which, as it was elaborated, became more and more ceremonial in character. To the biblical injunction to observe the Passover as a domestic festival the Pharisees and their successors added other domestic ceremonies, some obviously being a transfer of Palestinian social customs, consecrated by blessings. A large body of ceremonial law was thus evolved, the minutiae of which required codification, and which was fairly standardized in the Shulchan Aruch.

Reform Judaism was originally in no small degree a reaction against the mass of accumulated ceremonies which for strict observance occupied much time. On the other hand, within the last few decades it has come to be recognized that there is inherent value in the proper and reverent observance both of domestic and synagogic ceremonies. The tendency, therefore, has been to add to rather than diminish the ceremonies. The Jewish rites fall under three classifications, those of biblical origin, which are regarded as fundamental to the observance of Judaism; those surviving out of the many practiced during the ages and which have been found appropriate to prayer or joy or grief; and those which are new methods of expressing symbolically natural emotions. They all add to the form and dignity of life. The "color" they provide diminishes the grossness of many common actions, or lends charm to what would otherwise be only incidental and unimpressive habits.

Chametz:

"Leavened." Bread made from dough that is allowed to ferment and rise (or leaven). Chametz is forbidden on Passover. "Seven days shall there be no leaven found in your houses; for whosoever eateth that which is leavened, that one shall be cut off from the congregation of Israel." ex. xii. 19. Any form of leaven is forbidden on the Passover, hence the use of specially prepared foods which have been protected from contact with leaven.

Chautauqua Society, The Jewish:

Organized Philadelphia, 1893, for the purpose of disseminating Jewish education in America by utilizing the summer session method initiated by the Chautauqua Society. The founder was Rabbi Henry Berkowitz* who was the chancellor of the organization from its inception to his death, and devoted all his leisure to the promotion of its interests. In its early years its sessions were held in eastern seaside resorts, and its work attracted considerable attention. More recently the society has devoted itself to the spread of Jewish knowledge in schools of higher learning. Its 44th assembly was held in St. Louis, Mo., in 1930. Its present chancellor is Rabbi Louis Wolsey, and its secretary, Jeanette Miriam Goldberg.

Chess:

The oldest intellectual game known to mankind. It was played in Hindustan 5,000 years ago, and probably in Persia and Babylon at the beginning of the Talmudic era. It was known in Spain at the time of the rise of Mohammed. A Jew brought a set of Indian carved ivory chessmen to the court of Charlemagne from Baghdad. Ibn Ezra wrote a poetic version of the rules of chess in the 12th cent. The game has interested Jews and they have been prominent among the chess champions since international contests became popular. The three great Jewish chess champions of the 19th cent. were Johannes H. Zuckertort,* William Steinitz* and Emanuel Lasker.* Almost of equal rank were Winawer, Tarrasch,* Janowski* and J.J. Lowenthal.

Choir:

Levites formed the first choir organized for the temple service (II Chron. xxix. 27). After the destruction of the second temple the rabbis prohibited all vocal and instrumental music as a sign of national mourning. Maimonides, however, approved of choral services: the custom of using choirs in synagogs has greatly increased in modern times. Between orthodoxy and reform there is a permanent difference of opinion on the use of mixed choirs of men and women.

Chol-ha moed:

"The ordinary days." (a) The five days between the first and seventh days of Passover. Work is permitted on those days and no special services are held. "And on the first day a holy convocation, and on the seventh day a holy convocation shall there be to you." (Ex. xii. 16.) To the orthodox Jews who celebrate Passover for eight days in the Diaspora the first two and last two days are full holidays, and the middle four days are chol-ha-moed or half-holidays. (b) The last five days of Succoth which lasts seven days followed by Shemini-Atzereth and Simhath-Torah. Work is permitted on chol-ha-moed, but not on the other days.

Michael Alper, A.B.,M.A., M.H.L.,
Rabbi, Dir. Jewish Education, Hebrew Orphan Asylum, N.Y.C.Chronicles:

Two books accepted into the Canon, which contain genealogies, a history of the Temple, of the house of David, and of the kingdom of Judah to the fall of Jerusalem. The rabbis treated the two books as one; the Hebrew title is simply "Annals." The division into two books originated with the Septuagint translators. Chronicles make frequent reference to the source materials, the acts or records of the various kings. Higher critics have expended much labor on trying to decide who wrote or edited the Annals, and in dating this composition. In part Chronicles are a repetition of the Books of Samuel and Kings, but the latter part of II Chronicles contains new material. Though excavations relate more closely to the details in the Books of Kings, archeology, as far as it has covered Chronicles, has confirmed many details in the narrative.

Chronogram:

An inscription in which a date is expressed by the numeral letters contained in it. A favorite Jewish device. As every Hebrew letter has a numerical value, this cryptic dating is not difficult.

Circumcision (Brith Milah):

A religious rite enjoined upon Abraham (Gen. xvii. 10), "Every male child among you shall be circumcised." It is the characteristic symbol of Judaism, though Muslims and some sects of Eastern Rite Christians also observe it. It is performed among Jews on the eighth complete day after birth, even though that be a Sabbath, or the Day of Atonement. On a doctor's advice the operation may be delayed. If two children of the same mother die as a result of the operation, which consists of cutting off the foreskin of the male organ, the third male child must not be circumcised, but it is regarded as a full Jew. The operation consists of three parts "milah," circumcision "periah," the uncovering of the organ, and "mezizah," dressing of the wound. The "mohel," is circumcisor; the godfather is "Sandek," "G'vater," or "Ba'al Brith." When possible a minyan, or religious quorum, is present. At the conclusion of the rite the child is named.

Michael Alper, A.B., M.A., M.H.L.,
Rabbi, Dir. Jewish Education, Hebrew Orphan Asylum, N.Y.C.

Codes, Jewish Religious and Civil:

A continuing stream of regulations applicable to the political, civil, economic, and religious life of the Jews can be traced from the Book of the Covenant (Ex. xxi-xxiii), through the Pentateuch, and the rules of Ezra, and Nehemiah. Amplified by new experiences and needs the decisions of Sanhedrin became the material of the Mishnah,* the Talmud* and the Mishnah Torah. After 70 the codes were of religious and civil import. The recodification of old codes, and the necessary increasing emphasis on religious matters can be traced through the Synodical decisions beginning with Gershom.* and Tam,* and the codes of Saadia,* Hai Gaon,* Maimonides,* Moses of Coucy,* Isaac Corbeil, Abraham of Narbonne, Solomon Ibn Adret,* Asher b. Jehiel,* Jacob b. Asher* author of "Turim," the Shulchan Aruch of Joseph Caro,* and Moses Isserles,* and through the Responsa* literature which is still accumulating.

Confession:

Private confession and remission of sin is not a Jewish rite. Confession is a public and, it may be said, a communal act, for the prescribed confessions in the various liturgies are couched in the plural form.

Confirmation:

A group ceremony in which children publicly affirm their membership in the Jewish group and their appreciation of the Jewish faith. In the reform temples of the United States confirmation services are generally held on the first day of Shabuoth,* thus carrying out the tradition which ascribes the giving of the law on Mt. Sinai to that festival. Even as ancient Israel agreed to accept the Sinaitic revelation in those days, so does modern Israel. Boys and girls are confirmed together. Classes vary in size. In some of the larger temples in the United States more than 100 children are confirmed annually. Details of the ceremony vary according to the taste of the individual rabbi. Many have set an age limit, 14 and 15 being the usual ages.

Confirmation is graduation from the religious school. To retain the interest of youth in Judaism after confirmation, post-graduate classes have been developed. As a result of the universal observance of confirmation, Bar-Mitzvah* has been practically eliminated in reform temples. Confirmation first made its appearance in Germany with the dawn of the 19th century. It was part of the process of emancipation from the ghetto. It recognized the equality of woman in the Jewish religion. It was opposed by some of the orthodox leaders, though not by all. In 1834 a reactionary government in Prussia forbade it and in 1836 in Bavaria.

In 1810 an ordinance of the consistory of the Kingdom of Westphalia declared that "it is the rabbi's duty to prepare the young for confirmation," and the first ceremony was held at Cassel. Only boys were confirmed on the Sabbath of their Bar-Mitzvah. In 1817 a few girls were confirmed in Berlin and in 1818 in Hamburg, in the school, but not in the synagog. The first confirmation of boys and girls in a synagog took place in the Hamburg Temple in 1832. It was an orthodox rabbi, Samuel Egers, in Brunswick, who instituted the confirmation of boys and girls on Shabuoth, in 1831. Confirmation services were first held in Denmark in 1817, in France in 1841, in England in 1842, and in the United States at Temple Emanu-El, New York, in 1847. In the United States the confirmation ceremony is a major event in the life of the child. Many festivities, such as giving of gifts and receptions, both public and private, center about it. Orthodox and conservative congregations are commencing to have confirmation services. The rite has become an important feature of the synagogal life. The teaching for confirmation is generally done by the rabbi. Besides instruction in Jewish history and in the principles of Judaism and religion, in some congregations courses in comparative religion are also part of the curricula. In the reform temples of America the confirmation ceremony has not only given new vitality to the dying Shabuoth festival, but it has become a source of inspiration. In few congregations are children asked to subscribe to any creed. The ceremony intensifies the Jewish loyalties of the child.

Congregation:

"Kahal," implying assembly, rather than a definite organization of members. In common usage an organization of individuals for the purpose of holding religious service in common.

Covenant:

This form of solemn agreement, which in Hebrew is "b'rith," occurs frequently in the Bible. God covenanted with Abraham, from which arose the rite of circumcision: with the people of Israel at Sinai, by the proclamation of the Ten Commandments which are known as "the words of the covenant"; with Aaron, etc. These covenants were frequently renewed so that the word "covenant" has acquired a significance in the English language which is not accorded to "agreement" or "contract."

Cup of Elijah:

At the Seder service a cup of wine is filled symbolic of the expected presence of the fearless prophet, Elijah, who according to the mystics will announce the Messianic Age on Passover eve.